A landscape is the visible features of an area of land , its landforms , and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity.
The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions , mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands , and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests , and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions.
The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context. When people deliberately improve the aesthetic appearance of a piece of land�by changing contours and vegetation, etc. The word landscape landscipe or landscaef arrived in England �and therefore into the English language �after the fifth century, following the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons ; these terms referred to a system of human-made spaces on the land.
The term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. The modern form of the word, with its connotations of scenery, appeared in the late sixteenth century when the term landschap was introduced by Dutch painters who used it to refer to paintings of inland natural or rural scenery.
The word landscape , first recorded in , was borrowed from a Dutch painters' term. An example of this second usage can be found as early as in the Book of Common Prayer :. Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling.
Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography , geology , geodesy , engineering geology , archaeology and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of surface processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence , and shape the coastal geography.
Surface processes comprise the action of water , wind , ice , fire , and living things on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of topography under the force of gravity , and other factors, such as in the very recent past human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate.
Geologic processes include the uplift of mountain ranges , the growth of volcanoes , isostatic changes in land surface elevation sometimes in response to surface processes , and the formation of deep sedimentary basins where the surface of Earth drops and is filled with material eroded from other parts of the landscape. The Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic , and biologic action with geologic processes. Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems.
This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy. Landscape is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. John A. Wiens [16] opposes the traditional view expounded by Carl Troll , Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. The discipline of landscape science has been described as "bring[ing] landscape ecology and urban ecology together with other disciplines and cross-disciplinary fields to identify patterns and understand social-ecological processes influencing landscape change".
Landscape science deals with the origin, structure, and dynamics of landscapes, the laws of the development and arrangement of landscapes, and the transformation of landscapes by the economic activity of man. Berg and others, and outside Russia by the German S. Integrated landscape management is a way of managing a landscape that brings together multiple stakeholders, who collaborate to integrate policy and practice for their different land use objectives, with the purpose of achieving sustainable landscapes.
The intention is to minimise conflict between these different land use objectives and ecosystem services. Proponents of integrated landscape management argue that it is well-suited to address complex global challenges, such as those that are the focus of the Sustainable Development Goals. Landscape archaeology or landscape history is the study of the way in which humanity has changed the physical appearance of the environment - both present and past.
Landscape generally refers to both natural environments and environments constructed by human beings. The concept of cultural landscapes can be found in the European tradition of landscape painting. The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes.
It was Carl O. Sauer , a human geographer , who was probably the most influential in promoting and developing the idea of cultural landscapes. Within his definition, the physical environment retains a central significance, as the medium with and through which human cultures act. The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group.
Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result. A cultural landscape, as defined by the World Heritage Committee , is the "cultural properties [that] represent the combined works of nature and of man. The World Heritage Committee identifies three categories of cultural landscape, ranging from i those landscapes most deliberately 'shaped' by people, through ii full range of 'combined' works, to iii those least evidently 'shaped' by people yet highly valued.
The three categories extracted from the Committee's Operational Guidelines, are as follows: [42]. The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over three thousand years.
It includes both the vast gardens of the Chinese emperors and members of the Imperial Family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world.
They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist between man and nature. By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of landscape paintings. The English landscape garden , also called English landscape park or simply the 'English garden', is a style of parkland garden intended to look as though it might be a natural landscape, although it may be very extensively re-arranged.
It drew inspiration from paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin , and from the classic Chinese gardens of the East, [46] which had recently been described by European travellers and were realized in the Anglo-Chinese garden, [46] and the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau � The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.
By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk , the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century. Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, incorporating aspects of botany , horticulture , the fine arts , architecture , industrial design , geology and the earth sciences , environmental psychology , geography , and ecology.
The activities of a landscape architect can range from the creation of public parks and parkways to site planning for campuses and corporate office parks, from the design of residential estates to the design of civil infrastructure and the management of large wilderness areas or reclamation of degraded landscapes such as mines or landfills. Landscape architects work on all types of structures and external space � large or small, urban , suburban and rural , and with "hard" built and "soft" planted materials, while paying attention to ecological sustainability.
For the period before , the history of landscape gardening later called landscape architecture is largely that of master planning and garden design for manor houses , palaces and royal properties, religious complexes, and centers of government. The first person to write of making a landscape was Joseph Addison in The term landscape architecture was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason in and was first used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted in During the latter 19th century, the term landscape architect became used by professional people who designed landscapes.
Here the combination of traditional landscape gardening and the emerging field of city planning gave landscape architecture its unique focus. This use of the term landscape architect became established after Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. Possibly the earliest landscape literature is found in Australian aboriginal myths also known as Dreamtime or Dreaming stories, songlines , or Aboriginal oral literature , the stories traditionally performed by Aboriginal peoples [48] within each of the language groups across Australia.
All such myths variously tell significant truths within each Aboriginal group's local landscape. They effectively layer the whole of the Australian continent's topography with cultural nuance and deeper meaning, and empower selected audiences with the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of Australian Aboriginal ancestors back to time immemorial.
In the West pastoral poetry represent the earliest form of landscape literature, though this literary genre presents an idealized landscape peopled by shepherds and shepherdesses, and creates "an image of a peaceful uncorrupted existence; a kind of prelapsarian world". An early form of landscape poetry, Shanshui poetry , developed in China during the third and fourth centuries A. Topographical poetry is a genre of poetry that describes, and often praises, a landscape or place.
John Denham 's poem "Cooper's Hill" established the genre, which peaked in popularity in 18th-century England. Examples of topographical verse date, however, to the Late Classical period, and can be found throughout the Medieval era and during the Renaissance. Though the earliest examples come mostly from continental Europe, the topographical poetry in the tradition originating with Denham concerns itself with the classics, and many of the various types of topographical verse, such as river, ruin, or hilltop poems were established by the early 17th century.
George Crabbe , the Suffolk regional poet, also wrote topographical poems, as did William Wordsworth , of which Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey is an obvious example. Auden 's " In Praise of Limestone " uses a limestone landscape as an allegory. Subgenres of topographical poetry include the country house poem , written in 17th-century England to compliment a wealthy patron, and the prospect poem , describing the view from a distance or a temporal view into the future, with the sense of opportunity or expectation.
When understood broadly as landscape poetry and when assessed from its establishment to the present, topographical poetry can take on many formal situations and types of places. Common aesthetic registers of which topographical poetry makes use include pastoral imagery, the sublime , and the picturesque , which include images of rivers, ruins, moonlight, birdsong, and clouds, peasants, mountains, caves, and waterscapes.
Though describing a landscape or scenery, topographical poetry often, at least implicitly, addresses a political issue or the meaning of nationality in some way. The description of the landscape therefore becomes a poetic vehicle for a political message.
The Vision on Mount Snowdon ���������� A hundred hills their dusky backs upheaved All over this still ocean, and beyond, Far, far beyond, the vapours shot themselves In headlands, tongues, and promontory shapes, Into the sea, the real sea, that seemed To dwindle and give up its majesty, Usurped upon as far as sight could reach. One important aspect of British Romanticism � evident in painting and literature as well as in politics and philosophy � was a change in the way people perceived and valued the landscape.
In particular, after William Gilpin 's Observations on the River Wye was published in , the idea of the picturesque began to influence artists and viewers. Gilpin advocated approaching the landscape "by the rules of picturesque beauty," [58] which emphasized contrast and variety. From the 18th century, a taste for the sublime in the natural landscape emerged alongside the idea of the sublime in language; that is elevated rhetoric or speech. The poor condition of workers, the new class conflicts, and the pollution of the environment all led to a reaction against urbanism and industrialisation and a new emphasis on the beauty and value of nature and landscape.
The poet William Wordsworth was a major contributor to the literature of landscape, [63] as was his contemporary poet and novelist Walter Scott. Also influenced by Romanticism's approach to landscape was the American novelist Fenimore Cooper , who was admired by Victor Hugo and Balzac and characterized as the "American Scott.
Landscape in Chinese poetry has often been closely tied to Chinese landscape painting, which developed much earlier than in the West. Many poems evoke specific paintings, and some are written in more empty areas of the scroll itself. Many painters also wrote poetry, especially in the scholar-official or literati tradition.
Shan shui painting and poetry shows imaginary landscapes, though with features typical of some parts of South China; they remain popular to the present day.
Fields and Gardens poetry is one of many Classical Chinese poetry genres. One of the main practitioners of the Fields and Gardens poetry genre was Tao Yuanming also known as Tao Qian � , among other names or versions of names. Many landscape photographs show little or no human activity and are created in the pursuit of a pure, unsullied depiction of nature [72] devoid of human influence, instead featuring subjects such as strongly defined landforms, weather, and ambient light.
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