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03.08.2020
Top 50 Flower Exporters in Kenya - including roses, lillies and cut flowers Apr 07, �� We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), announce a month finding on a petition to list the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys suwanniensis), a freshwater turtle species from the Suwannee River basin in Georgia and Florida, as a . We would like to show you a description here but the site won�t allow gardening ideas for backyard more. Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions. Among other factors, the diversity of all living things depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soils, geography and the presence of other gardening ideas for backyard study of the spatial distribution of organisms, species and ecosystems, is the science of biogeography.
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Adult turtles do not reach sexual maturity until 11 to 21 years of age. A mature female typically produces only one clutch per year consisting of eggs Ernst and Barbour , p. These turtles are characterized by low survivorship in early life stages, but surviving individuals may live many decades once they reach maturity.

The life-history traits of the species low fecundity, late age of maturity, and low survival of nests and juveniles contribute to the population's slow response rebound after historical over-exploitation.

Therefore, population growth rates are extremely sensitive to the harvest of adult females. Adult female survivorship less than 98 percent per year is considered unsustainable, and a further reduction of this adult survivorship will generally result in significant local population declines Reed et al. These data underscore how influential adult female mortality is on the ability of the species to maintain viable populations. Although regulatory harvest restrictions have decreased the number of Suwannee alligator snapping turtles harvested, populations have not necessarily increased in response.

This lag in population response is likely due to the demography of the species�specifically delayed maturity, long generation times, and relatively low reproductive output. The Suwannee alligator snapping turtle population remains low despite commercial and recreational harvest prohibitions Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission , p. Suwannee alligator snapping turtles can be killed or harmed incidentally during fishing and other recreational activities.

Some of these threats include fish hook ingestion, drowning when hooked on trotlines a fishing line strung across a stream with multiple hooks set at intervals and limb lines, or bush hooks, single hooks hung from branches , jug lines line with a hook affixed to a floating jug along with injuries and drowning when entangled in various types of fishing line.

Hoop nets are also used to capture catfish and baitfish and are made up of a series of hoops with netting and funnels where fish enter but are unable to escape through the narrow entry point.

The nets are left submerged and may entrap small Suwannee alligator snapping turtles that enter the traps and are unable to escape.

Boats and boat propeller strikes may also injure or kill Suwannee alligator snapping turtles; however, this effect is not limited to fishing boats. Actively used or discarded fishing line and hooks pose harm to Suwannee alligator snapping turtles.

They can ingest baited fishhooks and attached fishing line and, depending on where ingested hooks and line lodge in the digestive tract, they can cause harm or death Enge et al.

For example, hooks and line can cause gastrointestinal tract blockages, and the hooks can puncture the digestive organs, leading to mortality Enge et al. Fishhooks have been found in the gastrointestinal tracts of radiographed Suwannee alligator snapping turtles Enge et al.

Trotlines also negatively affect Suwannee alligator snapping turtles. Trotlines are a series of submerged lines with hooks off a longer line. Trotline fishing involves leaving the lines unattended for extended periods, before returning to check them. Limblines and bush hooks are similar to trot lines in that they are typically set and left unattended; however, they only use a single hook.

The turtles can become entangled in the lines and drown, as well as ingest trotline hooks and lines, also causing drowning or internal injuries. Bycatch from trotlines that resulted in mortality of Macrochelys turtles has been well documented. Dead turtles have been found on lines that had seemingly been abandoned Moore et al. The lines and hooks may also become dislodged from their place of attachment when left unattended, becoming aquatic debris that remains in the waterway for extended periods of time and may continue to be an entanglement hazard for many species, including Suwannee alligator snapping turtles.

Another stressor associated with recreational fishing and boating is harm Start Printed Page caused by boat propeller strikes. Collisions with boat propellers by unsuspecting surfacing or submerged turtles can injure them resulting in extensive damage to their carapaces, though effects on population demographic rates are unknown Enge et al. Suwannee alligator snapping turtle aquatic and nesting habitats have been altered by anthropogenic disturbances.

Changes in the riparian or nearshore areas affect the amount of suitable soils for nesting sites because the species constructs nests on land near the water. Riparian cover is important as it moderates in-stream water temperatures and dissolved oxygen levels. In addition to affecting the distribution and abundance of alligator snapping turtle prey species, these microhabitat conditions affect the snapping turtles directly.

Moderate temperatures and sufficient dissolved oxygen levels allow the turtles to remain stationary on the stream bottom for longer periods, increasing the ambush foraging opportunities. Changes in the riparian structure may affect the microclimate and conditions of the associated water body, directly affecting the foraging success of the turtles.

Activities and processes that can alter habitat include dredging, deadhead logging removal of submerged or partially submerged snags, woody debris and other large vegetation for wood salvage , removal of riparian cover, channelization, stream bank erosion, siltation, and land use adjacent to rivers e.

These activities negatively influence habitat suitability for Suwannee alligator snapping turtles. Erosion can change the stream bank structure affecting the substrate that may be suitable for nesting or accessing nesting sites. Siltation affects water quality and may reduce the health and availability of prey species.

Channelization destroys the natural benthic habitat and also affects the water depth and normal flow. Submerged obstacles may be removed during the channelization, which affects the microhabitat dynamics within the waterway and removes important structure for alligator snapping turtles to use for resting, foraging, and cover from predators.

While channelization within the species' range does not regularly occur, it is not prohibited. Deadhead logs and fallen riparian woody debris, where present, provide refugia during low-water periods and resting areas for all life stages and support important feeding areas for hatchlings and juveniles Enge et al. Suwannee alligator snapping turtle habitat is also influenced by water availability and quantity as well as water quality across its range.

Ground water withdrawals in the Florida portion of the species' range are managed by the Suwannee River Water Management District SRWMD ; withdrawals increased by 64 percent between and , mostly for irrigation. Most withdrawals in the basin occur in agricultural areas along the Suwannee River during the spring March through May Thom et al.

Water withdrawals may reduce flow in some streams, effectively isolating some turtles from the rest of the population or making immature turtles more vulnerable to predators.

Additionally, reduced water levels may impact prey abundance and distribution through restricting habitat connectivity, reducing dissolved oxygen levels, and increasing water temperatures.

Water quality may also be a factor for Suwannee alligator snapping turtles as contaminants enter the aquatic systems through runoff. The Lower Suwannee River's middle and lower basins are directly impacted by nutrients, including nitrates. Agricultural practices are the main source of nitrates, which specifically come from fertilizers and in some cases from manure and other waste products.

They introduce nitrates to the river and groundwater i. Groundwater seepage transports nitrates to the aquifer, which then reemerge through springs and other groundwater discharge, especially during low flow periods Pittman et al. The direct effects of water quality and water quantity on Suwannee alligator snapping turtle have not been quantified; however, as the human population that relies on water systems in the species' range continues to increase, the indirect effects across the entire range, coupled with other stressors, is likely to further reduce the species' viability.

Underscoring the potential severity of this threat, Florida's human population is anticipated to grow from nearly The public water supply demand will increase with increased human population growth. In addition, the human population in these counties will experience an average of As the human population increases, other threats to the species and its habitat are likely to increase.

For example, recreational use of the Suwannee River will more than likely continue to rise, which will increase human encounters with Suwannee alligator snapping turtle through incidental bycatch or boat strikes.

Also, more development may result in an increase in contaminated runoff and declines in water quality. Nest predation rates for Macrochelys spp. Raccoons Procyon lotor are common nest predators, but nine-banded armadillos Dasypus novemcinctus , Virginia opossums Didelphis virginiana , bobcats Lynx rufus , and river otters Lontra canadensis may also depredate nests Ernst and Lovich , p. Additional nonnative species found within the species' range that may depredate nests include feral pigs Sus scrofa and invasive red imported fire ants Solenopsis invicta Pritchard , p.

Although not documented in Suwannee alligator snapping turtle nests, fire ants are prevalent across the species' range, and predation by fire ants was the suspected culprit in the failure of alligator snapping turtle M. Beyond nest failure, some hatchlings endured wounds inflicted by fire ants that led to the loss of a limb or tail, which reduced their mobility and their chance of survival Holcomb , p.

The recovery of the species from historical overharvest depends on successful reproduction and survival of young. The currently low population size does not allow for absorbing the impact of elevated nest predation. The degree of added threat from the newer, introduced nest predators is unknown, but we can conclude that the overall threat from nest predation is greater than it was in the past because of the introduced predators. Coupled with other threats, nest predation will continue to negatively affect the species' overall viability.

Climate change may also affect Suwannee alligator snapping turtle to varying degrees, but the extent of impact is influenced by certain geographical factors, including proximity to the coast and latitudinal thermogradients.

Climate change may affect Suwannee alligator snapping turtle in several ways. First, increased water withdrawal for human use i. In addition, available water will be affected as greater evaporation will occur with continued warming temperatures. Furthermore, increased temperatures may have physiological impacts on sex ratios because these turtles have temperature-dependent sex determination, and higher temperatures may skew the sex ratio.

Temperature determines the sex of the Macrochelys developing embryos; certain nest temperatures result in primarily male hatchlings with females produced at temperatures of the two extremes of the intermediate male-producing temperatures.

Females are produced when the nest temperatures are either cooler or warmer than the temperature threshold for male development. In order to develop mixed ratios of both sexes, fluctuating temperatures near the intermediate and extremes are ideal. In addition to temperature effects on sex ratio, temperature has been associated with nest viability, with highest viability in nests with intermediate sex ratios produced at the male-producing intermediate temperature range with fluctuations of warmer or cooler temperatures for female-producing temperatures during the incubation period and lowest in nests with female-biased sex ratios Ewert and Jackson , pp.

Thus, warming temperatures might lead to Suwannee alligator snapping turtle nests with strongly female-biased sex ratios. These skewed sex ratios may result in declining viability as mating behaviors are altered and other issues with unbalanced populations arise.

Collectively, these impacts from reduced precipitation and increased temperature would reduce the quality or availability of suitable habitat for the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle Thom et al. Climate change impacts on the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle will likely act in concert with and exacerbate other threats and stressors' impacts.

Other stressors that may affect Suwannee alligator snapping turtles include disease, nest parasites, contaminants from urban and agricultural runoff, and historical recreational harvest, but none of these stressors rise to the level of a threat. These stressors may act on individuals or have highly localized impacts. Additional information on these stressors acting on the species is available in the species' SSA in the Factors Influencing Viability section Service , pp.

It includes historical and current threats that have caused and are causing a decline in the species' viability. These primary threats are not only affecting the species now but are expected to continue impacting the species and were included in the species' future condition projections in the SSA Service , pp.

Several State and Federal regulatory mechanisms protect the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle and its habitat. Section of the Federal Clean Water Act CWA requires that an applicant for a Federal license or permit provide a certification that any discharges from the facility will not degrade water quality or violate water-quality standards, including State-established water quality standard requirements.

Section of the CWA establishes programs to regulate the discharge of dredged and fill material into waters of the United States. Permits to fill wetlands; to install, replace, or remove culverts; to install, repair, replace, or remove bridges; or to realign streams or water features that are issued by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection or U. The Clean Water Act regulations ensure proper mitigation measures are applied to minimize the impact of activities occurring in streams and wetlands where the species occurs.

These regulations contribute to the conservation of the species by minimizing or mitigating the effects of certain activities on Suwannee alligator snapping turtles and their habitat.

Suwannee alligator snapping turtle is included under Macrochelys spp. At the time the species was added to the list in , the genus was a single species described as Macroclemys and synonymous with Macrochelys 70 FR , December 16, Both species, alligator snapping turtle and Suwannee alligator snapping turtle, are protected under this regulation because they were included as a single entity at the time of the CITES Appendix III listing.

CITES requires permits for exports of Appendix III species as well as annual reporting; annual reports must include the number of exported individuals of listed species.

These requirements help control and document legal, international trade. Thus, Appendix-III listings lend additional support to State wildlife agencies in their efforts to regulate and manage these species, improve data gathering to increase knowledge of trade in the species, and strengthen State and Federal wildlife enforcement activities to prevent poaching and illegal trade.

While the CITES reporting indicates the number of turtles exported with other relevant data, the information required for the export reports does not always accurately identify the source Start Printed Page stock of the exported turtle s.

The discrepancy in reporting the actual source of the internationally exported turtles does not allow us to easily evaluate the impact of export on Suwannee alligator snapping turtles. Additionally, there are no reporting requirements to track domestically traded alligator snapping turtles, which are not included in CITES reporting. These Refuges are managed by the Service to conserve native wildlife species and their habitats and are protected from future development.

Okefenokee NWR is at the northernmost proximity of the species' range and is a freshwater wetland. There are only a few anecdotal reports within Okefenokee NWR. There have been no systematic surveys conducted within the swamp, so the extent of use by the species of that area has not yet been documented.

However, the paucity of documented and anecdotal records from the surrounding areas would indicate that the species is not common or widespread at this location.

Evaluate feasibility of restoring the fish population Service , pp. Twenty miles of the Suwannee River is within the refuge and is suitable habitat for Suwannee alligator snapping turtles, albeit less so as salinity increases the closer the river gets to the Gulf of Mexico.

The species is considered common within the Refuge, and nesting has been confirmed; however, the species is not commonly seen due to their ability to burrow into the river or creek banks, or sitting on the bottom and staying submerged until surfacing for air is needed , and cryptic coloration when submerged makes detection of the species very difficult Woodward , pers.

The Lower Suwannee NWR CCP includes management actions that may benefit the species and provides goals for wildlife, habitat, and landscape management. The CCP's objectives and strategies provide that the refuge monitor and manage wildlife populations, manage the habitats for threatened and endangered species and species of special concern in the State of Florida, and promote interagency and private landowner cooperation Service , pp.

Suwannee alligator snapping turtles do not commonly occur on Moody Air Force Base, but they are occasionally found. The Suwannee alligator snapping turtle is State-listed in both Florida and Georgia as a threatened species. Since the original biological status review, two species of alligator snapping turtle were differentiated based upon genetic and skeletal differences Thomas et al.

During FWC's biological assessment of Macrochelys, it was determined by the biological review group that M. Implementation of the Macrochelys spp. FWC has established a team of biologists, the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle team, who continue to study the species to better understand the species and population trends. Both Macrochelys suwanniensis and M. Georgia listed M. State law protects threatened animal species by prohibiting their harassment, capture, killing, sale, and purchase; and destruction of their habitat on public land Georgia Administrative Code section Current State regulations are intended to minimize the impact of poaching and also contribute to the conservation of the species through public outreach.

Because of the life history of the species with generation times up to 30 years, recovery from historical impacts to the population take greater time to be rebuild a healthy, sustainable population. Structural features within the water are important components of the habitat for Suwannee alligator snapping turtles.

Submerged and partially submerged vegetation provide feeding and sheltering areas for all age classes. The structural diversity and channel stabilization created by instream woody debris provides essential habitat for spawning and rearing aquatic species Bilby , p. Snag or woody habitat was reported as the major stable substrate in southeastern Coastal Plain sandy-bottom streams and a site of high invertebrate diversity and productivity Wallace and Benke , p.

Wood enhances the ability of a river or stream ecosystem to use the nutrient and energy inputs and has a major influence on the hydrodynamic behavior of the river Wallace and Benke , p. One component of this woody habitat is deadhead logs, which are sunken timbers from historical logging operations. Deadhead logging is the removal of submerged cut timber from a river or creek bed and banks. However, current State regulations minimize the impact of deadhead logging on Suwannee alligator snapping turtle.

Florida allows deadhead logging only with proper permits from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the consideration of which includes assessment of impacts on wildlife. Further, the State prohibits deadhead logging in some of the waterways in the species' range.

Georgia is not currently processing permits; therefore, deadhead logging is not currently being permitted in any of its waterways. A buffer such as a strip of trees, plants, or grass along a stream or wetland naturally filters out dirt and pollution from rainwater runoff before it enters rivers, streams, wetlands, and marshes. This vegetation not only serves as a filter for the aquatic system, but the riparian cover influences microhabitat conditions such as in-stream water temperature and dissolved oxygen levels.

These habitat conditions not only influence the distribution and abundance of alligator snapping turtle prey species but also directly affect Suwannee alligator snapping turtles. Moderate temperatures and sufficient dissolved oxygen levels allow the turtles to remain stationary on the stream bottom for longer periods, increasing their ambush foraging opportunities.

Loss of riparian vegetation and canopy cover result in increased solar radiation, elevation of stream temperatures, loss of allochthonous organic material originating from outside the channel food material, and removal of submerged root systems that provide habitat for alligator snapping turtle prey species Allan , pp. The Georgia Erosion and Sediment Control Act restricts disturbance and trimming of vegetation within a ft 7.

Georgia also has a non-point water pollution source management program under which the State established and updates a Nonpoint Source Management Plan; this plan sets long-term goals and short-term activities for the State, partners, and stakeholders to address non-point source pollution.

Although not focused on buffers per se, the Florida Surface Water Improvement and Management Act addresses statewide non-point source pollution impacts to waterbodies on a landscape scale and partners with Federal, State, and local governments, and the private sector to restore damaged ecosystems and prevent pollution from storm water runoff Florida Administrative Code, Rule: In this section, we describe conservation measures in place for Suwannee alligator snapping turtle.

Many efforts are directed to Macrochelys in general; however, we are describing below those that affect only Suwannee alligator snapping turtle. Water conservation measures restricting lawn and landscaping irrigation can benefit the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle by limiting water withdrawal, which directly benefits the turtle through maintaining available habitat and supporting habitat for prey species, and by reducing runoff of fertilizers and other turf management chemicals that could disrupt or alter water chemistry in the streams.

The agency monitors the water quantity and quality by regular testing and reporting. It also implements water-use restrictions to conserve freshwater resources of springs and rivers within the SRWMD. Unnecessary water use is discouraged, and landscape irrigation restrictions are implemented as needed such as limiting watering to twice per week based on a District water conservation measures that apply to residential landscaping, public or commercial recreation areas, and businesses that are not regulated by a District-issued water use permit SRWMD , unpaginated.

Landscape irrigation accounts for the largest percentage of household water use in the State of Florida. These restrictions contribute to maintaining healthy groundwater level and flows. The current condition for Suwannee alligator snapping turtle considered the current abundance, current threats, and conservation actions as in the context of what is known about its historical range. In order to determine species-specific population and habitat factors along with threats and conservation actions acting on the species, expert elicitation was used in the absence of available related information.

Species experts independently provided relevant information related to the species for which each were familiar. To describe Suwannee alligator snapping turtle's resiliency, redundancy, and representation for the current condition analysis, we assessed the species as a single population, because there is evidence that the turtles may move between the Suwannee and Santa Fe Rivers. The entire species is estimated to have an abundance of 2, turtles across its entire range in Georgia and Florida Service , p.

The current major threats acting on the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle include fishing bycatch, illegal harvest poaching , nest predation, habitat alteration, and climate change. Other stressors acting on the species include disease, insect parasitism, and contaminants.

The species is listed in Florida and Georgia as threatened on each State's threatened and endangered species list.

When evaluating range expansion or constriction, recent surveys have confirmed minimal change in the known, limited historical range. The resiliency of the single Suwannee alligator snapping turtle population is described according to its abundance, threats, and range expansion or contraction.

Current abundance was the assessment for current resilience, along with information about current threats, conservation actions, and distribution serving as auxiliary information about Start Printed Page the causes and effects of current versus historical abundances.

There is little information with which to make rigorous comparisons between current and historical abundances; however, population depletions historically occurred for consumption and cumulated through the s when turtles and turtle meat were exported regionally for commercial use. Information about the magnitude of the changes in abundance over time come from anecdotal observations by trappers Pritchard , pp.

The historical large-scale removal of large, reproductive turtles from the population for commercial harvest continue to affect the species and its' ability to rebound.

Therefore, as a result of the historical and ongoing threats, as described above, the species currently resiliency encompasses a single population with an estimated abundance of 2, turtles across most of its historical range in Georgia and Florida. Additional information regarding current condition descriptions are included in the SSA report Service , pp. The home range for Suwannee alligator snapping turtles has been reported between m and 2, m Thomas , pp. Turtles are not confined to any part of their range as long as there are no physical barriers; while this species is aquatic with the exception of nesting, these turtles are capable of moving across land if necessary as conditions become unsuitable or resources are diminished.

When describing the species' representation, for the purposes of the SSA in evaluating the species' current and future viability, the species consisted of a single representative unit. The best available science regarding the species indicates there is no genetic or environmental condition variation across the species' range that would allow for delineating additional representative units.

Representation, which measures a species' adaptive potential in the face of natural or anthropogenic changes, is inherently low for this species because the best available information shows it lacks significant genetic variation within its single population. In addition, there are no physical barriers inhibiting movement within the range that bring about genetic divergence over time.

The Suwannee alligator snapping turtle's redundancy is likewise limited to the single population, with an estimated abundance of 2, turtles, across its historical range. Redundancy is related to a species' response to a catastrophic event. While there is only a single population, it is widely distributed across the historical range; therefore, the chance of a catastrophic event affecting the entire species is very low.

Because of these threats, and particularly the legacy effects of historical harvest, the overall current condition is a single population with an estimated abundance of 2, turtles across most of its historical range.

The species' resiliency is likely lower than it was historically as a result of the loss of reproductive females and the species' life history long-lived, late age to sexual maturity, low intrinsic growth rate. However, the species was not well studied historically, so there is little information anecdotal observations from with which to make comparisons between historical and current abundance estimates. Redundancy and representation are limited and low, respectively, since the species is considered a single population with little genetic variability or no physical barriers to movement.

The future condition of Suwannee alligator snapping turtle is described in detail in the SSA report Service , pp. When evaluating the species' future viability, we considered the current condition of the species and the threats acting on the species to develop a model to determine future trends of species' estimated abundance.

We applied six plausible scenarios that factored in the estimated abundance and threats acting on the species to project the future resiliency of the species Table 1. Three scenarios consider conservation actions to be applied, while the remaining three scenarios project conditions with no conservation actions. To assess future conditions and the viability of the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle, we constructed a female-only, stage-structured matrix population model to project the population dynamics over 50 years.

Species experts identified five primary potential threats that were likely to reduce stage-specific survival probabilities: Commercial fishing bycatch includes entanglement, drowning, or otherwise dying from interaction with fishing gear; influenced hatchling, juvenile, and adult survival , recreational fishing bycatch has the same impacts as commercial fishing bycatch; influenced juvenile and adult survival , hook ingestion surviving a bycatch event but enduring the lingering effects of an ingested hook; influenced juvenile and adult survival , illegal collection i.

The subsidized nest predator threat reflects additional nest depredation beyond what would be expected from common nest mesopredators e. We used the best available information from the literature to parameterize the population matrix and elicited data from species experts to quantify stage-specific initial abundance, the spatial extent of threats, and threat-specific percent reductions to survival. To account for potential uncertainty in the effects of each threat, the six future scenarios were divided along a spectrum: Threat-induced reductions to survival were decreased by 25 percent, were unaltered, or were increased by 25 percent.

To simulate conservation actions, the spatial extent of each threat was either left the same or reduced by 25 percent Table 1. We used a fully stochastic projection model that accounted for uncertainty in demographic parameters to predict future conditions of the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle units under the six different scenarios. We then used the model output to predict the probability of extinction and quasi-extinction.

Quasi-extinction is defined here as the probability that the Suwannee alligator snapping turtle population declined to less than 5 percent of the abundance in year one of the simulation e.

Suwannee alligator snapping turtle abundance was predicted to decline over the next 50 years in all six scenarios. The single population's resiliency measure also declined as abundance declined. Given the high uncertainties parameterized in the model, the species does not have a high likelihood of extinction in the basin within 50 years.

However, quasi-extinction is very likely to occur in both decreased threats scenarios after an average of 35 to 40 years , very likely to occur in both expert-elicited scenarios after an average of 28 to 35 years , and virtually certain in both increased threats scenarios after an average of 2 to 30 years. Resiliency continues to decline despite conservation action implementation and prohibitions on harvest.

Representation and redundancy were already inherently low and limited, respectively, with a single population representing the species with little to no genetic variation or physical barriers to movement, and this limited redundancy and low representation did not change under any of the scenarios. We note that, by using the SSA framework to guide our analysis of the scientific information documented in the SSA report, we have not only analyzed individual effects on the species, but we have also analyzed their potential cumulative effects.

We incorporate the cumulative effects into our SSA analysis when we characterize the current and future condition of the species. Without water management and strategies for adequately addressing ever-increasing demand, the solution is incomplete. An aquifer is a body of permeable soil or rock that contains or transmits groundwater. Typically, aquifers fill or recharge from rain or snowmelt when the water flows downward until it reaches less permeable rock. In times of drought or water scarcity, little water is available naturally to recharge existing groundwater supplies, which can become depleted by overuse.

Areas with the highest groundwater withdrawals include parts of China, India, and the United States. In some areas, including Australia and California, groundwater or aquifer recharging is being explored to help bolster water supplies. The process involves the injection or infiltration of excess surface water into underground aquifers. Water may be treated before it is injected. The water can be stored underground until it is needed. Surface water is often stored in dams, lakes, reservoirs, and tanks, but there are many challenges associated with it, including flooding, pollution by natural and manmade sources, and losses from evaporation or seepage.

Several interrelated strategies and approaches to water reuse can alleviate water scarcity for municipalities and industries. These include water recycling and reuse, and the use of zero-liquid discharge ZLD systems, which use, treat, and reuse water in a closed-loop system without release or discharge.

Recycled, or reclaimed, water can be used in a variety of applications across industries, both inside facilities and in the community. Typical uses for recycled water include surface irrigation for orchards and vineyards, golf courses, landscaped areas, and food crops.

Other uses include the recharging of groundwater, preservation or augmentation of ecosystems such as wetlands or riparian habitat, and in industrial processes. Nonpotable water can be used for toilet flushing, irrigating landscaping, washing vehicles and streets, and other similar purposes. With these systems, wastewater � once viewed Delaware Native Plants For Landscaping And Restoration Search as a useless, disposable commodity � becomes a valuable resource. Fluence has worldwide experience in the advanced treatment of wastewater, creating systems for water reuse across a range of industrial, agricultural, and municipal processes.

The Ashalim power plant concentrates sunlight to produce high-temperature steam for turbine generation. One important aspect of water reuse is that it preserves valuable sources of fresh water. One example is the new Ashalim solar thermal power plant in Israel, which relies on local fresh water for its cooling-tower make-up water. The government was looking for a system to reuse fresh water and minimize the discharge of brackish blowdown wastewater.

Fluence devised a solution that includes filtration, ultrafiltration, and reverse osmosis in modular containers. The food and beverage industry also uses water reuse and zero-discharge technologies. In fact, such technologies can improve their overall cost of operations as well as make them resilient in periods of water scarcity. Food plants require a large volume of water to process foods, clean plant equipment and remove waste products. This is why water and wastewater treatment present both a challenge and an opportunity for food plant operators.

Water reuse � whether it is grey water or recycled water � can save fresh water for human consumption in times of water stress and water scarcity. In Australia, for example, grey water use would reportedly save more than 1 trillion liters of fresh drinking water annually. Although some consumers are skeptical about drinking recycled water, vocal advocates � including Microsoft founder turned philanthropist Bill Gates � continue to demonstrate there is nothing to fear from drinking properly treated water.

An increasingly popular solution to fresh water scarcity is treating saline or brackish water sources through a process known as desalination. This process can treat seawater or groundwater containing salt concentrations that make the water unfit for human consumption. Fresh water, for example, is defined as water with less than 1, ppm of salt. Highly saline water contains between 10, ppm and 35, ppm of salt. Many nations are increasing their investment in desalination to develop reliable water sources in the face of growing demand.

These include the United Arab Emirates, nations with limited available water supplies such as Cyprus, and water-stressed areas of the U. There are an estimated 16, desalination plants in operation around the world, the largest of which are in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Israel.

In the UAE, for example, water demand is expected to double between and Abu Dhabi reportedly produced million GPD in Unfortunately, desalination often has relied heavily on power-hungry, fixed facilities. Masdar estimated that seawater desalination requires about 10 times more energy than pumping well water does. Register Now. Register now Get limited access to our industry news, analysis and data, plus regular email updates Email address First name first name.

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