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Painting Landscapes � backyard landscaping plans - ���� ���������� The art of Ancient Rome, its Republic and later Empire includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic backyard landscaping plans objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered to be minor forms of Roman art, although they were not considered as such at the time. Sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also. ?Best 10 Types of Residential Landscape PSD color plans Bundle (Total GB PSD Files -Best Recommanded!!????) $ $ Download ? Sale! ??Fitness Equipment?@Autocad Blocks,Drawings,CAD Details,Elevation $ $ Download ? Chinese Landscape Wall Design-Sketchup Models(Best Recommanded!!) $ Download ? Sale!
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There are a number of other parts Landscape Oil Painting Books Zip of painted rooms surviving from Rome and elsewhere, which somewhat help to fill in the gaps of our knowledge of wall-painting. From Roman Egypt there are a large number of what are known as Fayum mummy portraits , bust portraits on wood added to the outside of mummies by a Romanized middle class; despite their very distinct local character they are probably broadly representative of Roman style in painted portraits, which are otherwise entirely lost.

Nothing remains of the Greek paintings imported to Rome during the 4th and 5th centuries, or of the painting on wood done in Italy during that period. Most of this wall painting was done using the a secco dry method, but some fresco paintings also existed in Roman times. There is evidence from mosaics and a few inscriptions that some Roman paintings were adaptations or copies of earlier Greek works. Roman painting provides a wide variety of themes: animals, still life, scenes from everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subjects.

During the Hellenistic period, it evoked the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses. In the late empire, after AD, early Christian themes mixed with pagan imagery survive on catacomb walls. The main innovation of Roman painting compared to Greek art was the development of landscapes, in particular incorporating techniques of perspective, though true mathematical perspective developed 1, years later.

Surface textures, shading, and coloration are well applied but scale and spatial depth was still not rendered accurately. Some landscapes were pure scenes of nature, particularly gardens with flowers and trees, while others were architectural vistas depicting urban buildings.

Other landscapes show episodes from mythology, the most famous demonstrating scenes from the Odyssey. In the cultural point of view, the art of the ancient East would have known landscape painting only as the backdrop to civil or military narrative scenes.

It is possible to see evidence of Greek knowledge of landscape portrayal in Plato's Critias b�b :. Roman still life subjects are often placed in illusionist niches or shelves and depict a variety of everyday objects including fruit, live and dead animals, seafood, and shells.

Examples of the theme of the glass jar filled with water were skillfully painted and later served as models for the same subject often painted during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Pliny complained of the declining state of Roman portrait art, "The painting of portraits which used to transmit through the ages the accurate likenesses of people, has entirely gone out Indolence has destroyed the arts.

In Greece and Rome, wall painting was not considered as high art. The most prestigious form of art besides sculpture was panel painting , i. Unfortunately, since wood is a perishable material, only a very few examples of such paintings have survived, namely the Severan Tondo from c.

The portraits were attached to burial mummies at the face, from which almost all have now been detached. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally.

The background is always monochrome, sometimes with decorative elements. They are remarkably realistic, though variable in artistic quality, and may indicate that similar art which was widespread elsewhere but did not survive. A few portraits painted on glass and medals from the later empire have survived, as have coin portraits, some of which are considered very realistic as well.

Gold glass , or gold sandwich glass, was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century AD. There are a very few large designs, including a very fine group of portraits from the 3rd century with added paint, but the great majority of the around survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the Catacombs of Rome by pressing them into the mortar.

They predominantly date from the 4th and 5th centuries. Most are Christian, though there are many pagan and a few Jewish examples. It is likely that they were originally given as gifts on marriage, or festive occasions such as New Year. Their iconography has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated.

As time went on there was an increase in the depiction of saints. The earlier group are "among the most vivid portraits to survive from Early Christian times. They stare out at us with an extraordinary stern and melancholy intensity", [25] and represent the best surviving indications of what high quality Roman portraiture could achieve in paint. The Gennadios medallion in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, is a fine example of an Alexandrian portrait on blue glass, using a rather more complex technique and naturalistic style than most Late Roman examples, including painting onto the gold to create shading, and with the Greek inscription showing local dialect features.

He had perhaps been given or commissioned the piece to celebrate victory in a musical competition. Roman genre scenes generally depict Romans at leisure and include gambling, music and sexual encounters. Summary maps were drawn to highlight key points of the campaign. Josephus describes the painting executed on the occasion of Vespasian and Titus 's sack of Jerusalem :. There was also wrought gold and ivory fastened about them all; and many resemblances of the war, and those in several ways, and variety of contrivances, affording a most lively portraiture of itself.

For there was to be seen a happy country laid waste, and entire squadrons of enemies slain; while some of them ran away, and some were carried into captivity; with walls of great altitude and magnitude overthrown and ruined by machines; with the strongest fortifications taken, and the walls of most populous cities upon the tops of hills seized on, and an army pouring itself within the walls; as also every place full of slaughter, and supplications of the enemies, when they were no longer able to lift up their hands in way of opposition.

Fire also sent upon temples was here represented, and houses overthrown, and falling upon their owners: rivers also, after they came out of a large and melancholy desert, ran down, not into a land cultivated, nor as drink for men, or for cattle, but through a land still on fire upon every side; for the Jews related that such a thing they had undergone during this war. Now the workmanship of these representations was so magnificent and lively in the construction of the things, that it exhibited what had been done to such as did not see it, as if they had been there really present.

On the top of every one of these pageants was placed the commander of the city that was taken, and the manner wherein he was taken. These paintings have disappeared, but they likely influenced the composition of the historical reliefs carved on military sarcophagi , the Arch of Titus , and Trajan's Column.

This evidence underscores the significance of landscape painting, which sometimes tended towards being perspective plans. Ranuccio also describes the oldest painting to be found in Rome, in a tomb on the Esquiline Hill :.

It describes a historical scene, on a clear background, painted in four superimposed sections. Several people are identified, such Marcus Fannius and Marcus Fabius. These are larger than the other figures In the second zone, to the left, is a city encircled with crenellated walls, in front of which is a large warrior equipped with an oval buckler and a feathered helmet; near him is a man in a short tunic, armed with a spear Around these two are smaller soldiers in short tunics, armed with spears In the lower zone a battle is taking place, where a warrior with oval buckler and a feathered helmet is shown larger than the others, whose weapons allow to assume that these are probably Samnites.

This episode is difficult to pinpoint. One of Ranuccio's hypotheses is that it refers to a victory of the consul Fabius Maximus Rullianus during the second war against Samnites in BC. The presentation of the figures with sizes proportional to their importance is typically Roman, and finds itself in plebeian reliefs. This painting is in the infancy of triumphal painting, and would have been accomplished by the beginning of the 3rd century BC to decorate the tomb.

Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring Etruscans , themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta , usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period.

As the expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period.

Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.

A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments of prosperous middle-class Romans, which very often featured portrait busts, and portraiture is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city.

The famous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze. The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief , culminating in the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating Trajan AD and Marcus Aurelius by survive in Rome, where the Ara Pacis "Altar of Peace", 13 BC represents the official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and refined, and the Sperlonga sculptures it at its most baroque.

Some late Roman public sculptures developed a massive, simplified style that sometimes anticipates Soviet socialist realism. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius , [41] Campana reliefs were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus.

All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver Warren Cup , glass Lycurgus Cup , and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea , Gonzaga Cameo and the " Great Cameo of France ". After moving through a late 2nd century "baroque" phase, [44] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed.

Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace.

The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with roundels in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the Four Tetrarchs c. Ernst Kitzinger found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity � in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition".

This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors, as in the famous fragments of a colossal acrolithic statue of Constantine , and the 4th or 5th century Colossus of Barletta.

However rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus , and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the consular diptych. Etruscan sarcophagus , 3rd century BC. The " Capitoline Brutus ", dated to the 4th to 3rd centuries BC. A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste Palastrina , [47] which was built c. The Orator , c.

Bust of Emperor Claudius , c. Commodus dressed as Hercules , c. The Four Tetrarchs , c. The cameo gem known as the " Great Cameo of France ", c. Roman portraiture is characterized by its " warts and all " realism. Veristic portrait bust of an old man, head covered capite velato , either a priest or paterfamilias marble, mid-1st century BC.

Traditional Roman sculpture is divided into five categories: portraiture, historical relief, funerary reliefs, sarcophagi, and copies of ancient Greek works. While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary style.

Roman reliefs of battle scenes, like those on the Column of Trajan , were created for the glorification of Roman might, but also provide first-hand representation of military costumes and military equipment. Trajan's column records the various Dacian wars conducted by Trajan in what is modern day Romania. It is the foremost example of Roman historical relief and one of the great artistic treasures of the ancient world.

This unprecedented achievement, over foot of spiraling length, presents not just realistically rendered individuals over 2, of them , but landscapes, animals, ships, and other elements in a continuous visual history � in effect an ancient precursor of a documentary movie. It survived destruction when it was adapted as a base for Christian sculpture.

The Romans inherited a tradition of art in a wide range of the so-called "minor arts" or decorative art. Most of these flourished most impressively at the luxury level, but large numbers of terracotta figurines, both religious and secular, continued to be produced cheaply, as well as some larger Campana reliefs in terracotta. Luxury arts included fancy Roman glass in a great range of techniques, many smaller types of which were probably affordable to a good proportion of the Roman public.

This was certainly not the case for the most extravagant types of glass, such as the cage cups or diatreta , of which the Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum is a near-unique figurative example in glass that changes colour when seen with light passing through it. The Augustan Portland Vase is the masterpiece of Roman cameo glass , [54] and imitated the style of the large engraved gems Blacas Cameo , Gemma Augustea , Great Cameo of France and other hardstone carvings that were also most popular around this time.

Roman mosaic was a minor art, though often on a very large scale, until the very end of the period, when late-4th-century Christians began to use it for large religious images on walls in their new large churches; in earlier Roman art mosaic was mainly used for floors, curved ceilings, and inside and outside walls that were going to get wet.

The famous copy of a Hellenistic painting in the Alexander Mosaic in Naples was originally placed in a floor in Pompeii ; this is much higher quality work than most Roman mosaic, though very fine panels, often of still life subjects in small or micromosaic tesserae have also survived. The Romans distinguished between normal opus tessellatum with tesserae mostly over 4 mm across, which was laid down on site, and finer opus vermiculatum for small panels, which is thought to have been produced offsite in a workshop, and brought to the site as a finished panel.

Most signed mosaics have Greek names, suggesting the artists remained mostly Greek, though probably often slaves trained up in workshops. The late 2nd century BC Nile mosaic of Palestrina is a very large example of the popular genre of Nilotic landscape , while the 4th century Gladiator Mosaic in Rome shows several large figures in combat.

In the transition to Byzantine art, hunting scenes tended to take over large animal scenes. Metalwork was highly developed, and clearly an essential part of the homes of the rich, who dined off silver, while often drinking from glass, and had elaborate cast fittings on their furniture, jewellery, and small figurines.

A number of important hoards found in the last years, mostly from the more violent edges of the late empire, have given us a much clearer idea of Roman silver plate.

Few Roman coins reach the artistic peaks of the best Greek coins, but they survive in vast numbers and their iconography and inscriptions form a crucial source for the study of Roman history, and the development of imperial iconography, as well as containing many fine examples of portraiture.

They penetrated to the rural population of the whole Empire and beyond, with barbarians on the fringes of the Empire making their own copies. In the Empire medallions in precious metals began to be produced in small editions as imperial gifts, which are similar to coins, though larger and usually finer in execution. Su Shi Famous statesman, poet, calligrapher, art critic and painter of bamboo, also known as Su Dongpo. With those in his circle, such as the bamboo painter Wen Tong and the calligrapher Huang Tingjian, he established the concept of wenrenhua , that is, painting by literati, arguing that painting could share the values and status of poetry.

In his view, 'natural genius and originality' were more important than form-likeness in painting. He held official posts but was also banished several times during his career. None of his paintings survive, but Dry Tree, Bamboo and Stone , Shanghai Museum, is attributed to him and provides clues to his subject matter and manner. Many examples of his calligraphy are still extant. Most famous figure painter of the Northern Song period.

He painted in baimiao outline drawing , a fine linear style derived from Gu Kaizhi, associated with historical themes and Buddhist divinities, and also in the Wu Daozi tradition with short and lively, fluctuating brushwork.

He was also appreciated as a painter of horses and landscapes. Thus, Li was the firstr artist to transmit the styles of several past masters rather than that of just one, establishing classic standards in each genre. Five Tribute Horses and Grooms present whereabouts unknown was the finest example of his work; Metamorphoses of Heavenly Beings , British Museum, is a close copy of his style, perhaps early Ming in date.

Li Tang c. As a transitional painter, his landscapes include subjects on a smaller scale than those of the great Northern Song masters, and his techniques innovate the axe-cut stroke produced with a slanting brush.

Mi Fu Born Hubei province. An intellectual as well as a painter and calligrapher, and also known for his critical connoisseurship of paintings and calligraphy. He was the author of Huashi The History of Painting. He painted foliage with large, wet dots and rocks with soft modelling.

His paintings are more intimate than those of most of his Northern Song contemporaries, being on a small scale, with a simplicity of design and a new realism. Huizong Effectively the last Northern Song emperor ruled before both he and his successor were captured and exiled. He was an aesthete and eminent calligrapher and painter, specialising in birds and floral still life painting. He surrounded himself with the court artists of the Academy of painting and took an active part in supervising them, neglecting state affairs.

Paintings include Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk , Museum of Fine Arts, Boston copied from the Tang dynasty artist Zhang Xuan ; Listening to the Qin , Gugong, Beijing; Gardenia and Lichi with Birds , British Museum a handscroll, attributed to him but probably by a court artist, showing the colourful and close description of nature so valued at his court, and signed with the imperial cipher.

Ma Hezhi flourished c. Official at the court of the Southern Song Emperor Gaozong, who commissioned him to illustrate the Confucian classic Shijing Book of Songs as patt of a series of paintings with themes proving the legitimacy of his rule, in the face of the occupation of north China by the Jin.

Illustrations to the Odes of Chen British Museum is one of the finest surviving examples of this series with ten scenes accompanied by the appropriate odes in the calligraphy of Emperor Gaozong. Two of the odes from this scroll were reproduced by Dong Qichang as models of Gaozong's writing; on some of the series the calligraphy was actually written by a court calligrapher though attributed to the emperor himself.

Ma used the so-called 'orchid leaf' and 'grasshopper-waist' style of fluctuating brushwork to depict the reverence necessary for such a canonised work of literature, transforming the fluctuating drapery lines of the Tang painter Wu Daozi. Zhang Zeduan flourished early twelfth century From Shandong province.

A colophon on his sole surviving work informs us that he was a member of the Hanlin Academy, specialising in buildings, boats, carriages and bridges, etc. His extant masterpiece is the handscroll Going up the River on Qingming Day , Gugong, Beijing, a celebration of the varied and busy scenes in and around the capital of the Notthern Song, painted shortly before the city was captured by the Jin in He later retired from court life to a Chan Zen Buddhist temple.

He was a younger contemporary of Ma Yuan. Ma Yuan flourished Fourth generation of a famous family at the Academy of painting and himself a foremost Southern Song painter, strongly influenced by Li Tang. The soft scenery around Hangzhou, conducive to intimate landscape scenes, encouraged painters to turn away from the monumental Northern Song landscape style.

The Academy painters Ma Yuan and Xia Gui, often referred to as the Ma-Xia school, used ink washes to create effects of light and mist, employing a 'one-corner' type of composition. Their style was to influence the court painters of the early Ming dynasty, such as Li Zai, when Chinese rule was re-established after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. Liang Kai early 13th century From Shandong province. Noted for his figures, landscapes, and Daoist and Buddhist subjects.

Qian Xuan c. Gained the jinshi doctoral degree in the Jing-ding reign and was learned in literature and music; he never served the Mongol regime. Closely followed by Zhao Mengfu, he was the first to practise a deliberate archaism, especially in landscape.

Dwelling in the Mountains, Gugong, Beijing, is in the 'blue and green' style. His flower paintings are finely detailed but with a certain blandness, shared by his calligraphy, usually inscribed on the same paper as the painting itself. Zhao Mengfu Relation of the Song dynastic royal family who nevertheless took office under the Yuan dynasty, for which he was much criticised. He was the foremost calligrapher and painter from the era of Yuan Dynasty art In painting he followed the lead of Qian Xuan in cultivating the 'spirit of antiguity', but his art could only have been possible at this time.

The Mind Landscape of Xie Youyu , Princeton Art Museum, New Jersey, reflects Zhao's own ambivalent position by portraying a 4th-century scholar-recluse who served at court yet preserved the purity of his mind. The Water Village , dated , Gugong, Beijing, exhibits the unified ground plane and simplified brushwork that would be emulated by late Yuan masters of landscape.

Ren Renfa From Songjiang, Jiangsu province. Bureaucrat and painter of horses and landscapes. His inscription on Fat and Lean Horses , Gugong, Beijing, likens the two horses to different types of official, one who grows fat in office, the other who gives his all to serve the people.

Huang Gongwang Born Jiangsu province. One of the four masters of the late Yuan. Along with Wu Zhen, Ni Zan and Wang Meng, he pioneered a landscape style that was to inspire countless variations by later painters, bringing landscape wholly within the repertoire of the scholar-painter or wenren.

Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains , dated , NPM, Taipei, is his most famous work, displaying a limited range of motifs to create a monumental composition of rivers, forests and mountain ranges of unlimited scope. Wu Zhen Another of the four masters of the late Yuan. They show the use of a well-soaked brush and deliberate, rounded strokes and dots. Ni Zan Third of the four masters of the late Yuan. Also a poet, calligrapher and landscape painter. From a wealthy family in Jiangsu province, he gave up his fortune to lead a simple life on a boat.

He is famous for his dry ink brushwork executed with a slanted brush, and for his sparse dots of intense black. The Rongxi Studio , dated , NPM, Taipei, and Autumn Clearing over a Fishing Lodge , Shanghai Museum, both exhibit his favourite subject, a small pavilion with bare trees, and favourite compositional scheme, with foreground rocks, a stretch of water and distant hills.

Wang Meng Grandson of Zhao Mengfu, from Zhejiang province, surviving briefly into the Ming dynasty and dying in prison. A landscape painter in the style of Dong Yuan and Juran, and one of the four masters of the late Yuan, his main contribution to Yuan painting is the portrayal of mountains as colossal features, exuberant, executed with an extremely varied and rich repertoire of brush techniques, in contrast to the spare and dry style of Ni Zan.

Dai Jin From Qiantang Hangzhou. In the Xuande reign he served for a short time at court. Despite the overtones of the Academy style, his brushwork is distinctively free and lively. Shen Zhou Earliest and leading master of the Wu school.

He preferred to live in retirement in Suzhou than to serve at the Ming court. A talented calligrapher and poet, as well as a painter, he used the brush styles of the late Yuan landscape paintets as vehicles for his own expression, being especially at home with that of Wu Zhen, while also striving to emulate the economy of Ni Zan's brushwork.

Besides landscapes, he is known for his figure drawing from life , such as the Album of Plants, Animals and Insects sixteen leaves , dated , PM, Taipei. At other times, Shen Zhou's depiction of actual places has a refreshing simplicity, capturing essential features with a minimum of detail.

Peach Blossom Valley attributed , British Museum provides some idea of his brushwork and large calligraphy modelled on the style of the Northern Song calligrapher Huang Tingjian. His patron in Nanjing, the Duke of Chengguo, was a great collector in whose collections Wu studied the refined baimiao ink mono-chrome, linear figure style of Li Gonglin which is apparent in many of Wu's early paintings such as the handscroll, The Iron Flute , , Shanghai Museum.

Serving at court in the Hongzhi reign , his version of the Ma-Xia style of landscape painting found favour, and became popular, making him a leading master of the Zhe school. His mature style was characterised by swift, even brash, brushwork later much criticised by Dong Qichang. The Pleasures of Fishing , Gugong, Beijing, is a fine example of his mature style.

The British Museum has several paintings acquired when Wu Wei's work was not highly regarded by Chinese collectors, the most important being the handscroll, Strolling Entertainers , and Lady Laoyu with the Luan Phoenix.

Tang Yin From Suzhou, Jiangsu province. Pupil of Zhou Chen d. Tang Yin was befriended by the father of Wen Zhengming and moved among Suzhou's literary circles. He was renowned for his portraits of women and for impressive landscapes inscribed with poems in his distinctive hand.

Wen Zhengming From Suzhou, Jiangsu province. One of the greatest Ming painters and calligraphers, and the most important painter of the Wu school after his teacher Shen Zhou. He served briefly at court after unsuccessfully attempting the tightly constrained state examinations ten times.

As a calligrapher, he was egually at home with running script in large or over-sized characters and with precise small regular script. In painting he was equally versatile, bringing finer detailing and a lyrical use of colour to Shen Zhou's landscape style and depicting also figures, ink bamboo and other literati subjecrs.

His followers of the Wu school in the 16th century included several members of his own family. Qiu Ying c. He was a brilliant figure painter and equally skilled in landscapes in the archaic 'blue and green' manner, on account of which many later imitations of this style are signed with his name. Lu Zhi Born Suzhou, Jiangsu province.

Landscape painrer and poet, follower of Wen Zhengming. He apparently never held office and eventually retired to a mountain retreat on Mount Zhixing, near Suzhou, where he continued to paint. In his landscapes of the Suzhou region, Ni Zan was evidently an inspirarion to Lu Zhi who emulated his angular, faceted forms and dry brushwork, often adding a pale vermilion or pale green.

Jiang Song c. Zhe school painter who captured in his landscape paintings 'all the mists of Yiangnan'. Like other Zhe school painters, he was out of favour with collectors in the Qing dynasty and Taking a Lute to Visit a Friend , British Museum had the original signature and seals removed, and a label added attributing it to Xu Daoning of the Song dynasty; but the ink wash foliage of the foreground trees, and other details, are unmistakably those of Jiang Song.

Poet and calligrapher who excelled at plants and flowers in a free or even wild ink wash manner, which was to be a major influence on the painting of Bada Shanren.

Ink Flowers , long handscroll on paper, Nanjing Museum, is one of his major works, culminating in a magnificent stand of banana palms. Ding Yunpeng Born Xiuning, Anhui province. Ding was a professional painter of landscapes, figures and particularly Buddhist and Daoist subjects. The God of Literature , , British Museum is an example of his refined and detailed figure painting in ink monochrome; his paintings in colour are equally accomplished.

The wood block-printed book, Chengshi Moyuan , contains some notable designs for ink cakes. Imitations of his work are fairly common among Buddhist and Daoist figure subjects. Dong Qichang Born Yiangsu province.

The dominant figure of Chinese painting in the late Ming and thereafter. Beginning with the study of calligraphy, he went on to search for and analyse the surviving masterpieces of Song and Yuan painting, with the aim of restoring ancient values to the painting of his own day. Clarity of composition, clear outlines and appropriate motifs were of the greatest importance to him. In the course of authenticating old paintings, he wrote extensively and proposed the theory of the Northern and Southern schools.

According to his theory, literati painters should follow the Southern school exclusively, relying on brushwork and eschewing excessive detail or painterly effects. He was followed by Wang Shimin, who executed a large album of reduced copies of Song and Yuan paintings in his own collection under Dong's guidance, and by other painters of the Orthodox school, such as Wang Jian, Wang Hui and Wang Yuangi.

The British Museum has a Landscape and a hand-scroll attributed of studies of rocks and trees, with notes written beside them. Cui Zizhong c. Cui was an independent artist following no particular school; a solitary and aloof character, somewhat of a recluse who eventually starved himself to death rather than ask for help. He was probably a member of a Daoist sect and painted many scenes from Buddhist and Daoist literature and legends.

His figures often refer to antique models and he concentrated on eccentric archaisms in an original way. Xiao Yuncong From Anhui province. The first of the Masters of Xin-an, and an yimin or 'left-over' subject after the fall of the Ming dynasty. The early Qing monk painter Hongren , another of the Anhui masters, was his pupil.

Xiang Shengmo Born Yiaxing, Zhejiang province. Son of the great collector Xiang Yuanbian , his paintings exhibit rather precisely delineated features and elegant colour in both landscapes and flower paintings. On failing the official examinations, he began to concentrate on his painting in order to earn a living.

Early on he developed a distinctive style and a creative transformation of the past that would identify him as an artist worthy of notice. His figure paintings were based on archaistic paintings of historical or Buddhist subjeCts. He was paired from his stay in Beijing with the artist Cui Zizhong 'Cui in the north and Chen in the south'. He was best known as a painter of figures working in the fine linear style of the 4th-century master Gu Kaizhi, but he also painted landscapes and designed wood-cut illustrations and playing cards.

His Female Immortals is at Gugong, Beijing. In the British Museum, besides several attributed works, there is a fine album leaf, Landscape , datable and a large hanging scroll, Chrysanthemums.

Wang Shimin Born Jiangsu province. Because he himself had a large collection of old masters, Wang Shimin was the best placed of the Orthodox masters to put the theories of Dong Qichang into practice. In his own landscape paintings, Wang Shimin's preferred style is derived from that of the Yuan master Wang Meng. Wang Jian Born Jiangsu province. The second of the Four Wangs in the group of six Orthodox masters, specialising like Wang Shimin in landscapes after Song and Yuan masters.

Landscape after Juran , British Museum exemplifies how the Orthodox masters used ancient styles and motifs here those of the 10th-century master Juran , to produce variations in their own distinctive hands. Hongren From Anhui province.

He was the first painter to display a distinctive Anhui style, and was especially fond of painting Mount Huang, one of China's most spectacular mountains. The album by him in the Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, features individual landscape elements each labelled with a single character. The Coming of Autumn , Ching Yuan Chai collection, China, shows the same precision in a complete landscape composition. He early became a Chan Zen Buddhist monk and eventually abbot of a monastery near Nanjing.

His paintings are characterised by crowded and restless compositions in which the landscape is broken up into numerous mountain ridges, valleys and rocky outcrops.

His brushwork has a dry earthy quality which is frequently enriched by coloured washes. Autumn and Winter , two album leaves, British Museum were done for a friend, Cheng Zhengkui, in and are among his finest works. Gong Xian c. In his rather sombre landscape paintings he merged ink washes with 'piled ink' or layers of brushwork, creating a monumental effect.

A Thousand Peaks and a Myriad Ravines , c. He was a scion of the Ming royal house and hence another an yimin or left-over subject when the Ming dynasty fell in His early paintings include albums of flowets and rocks, with recondite poems, and are signed with a variety of obscure names.

Later he used quizzical depictions of birds and fish to allude to his distress under Manchu rule, also painting lotuses with broken stems, and ink landscapes. Wang Hui The most versatile of the Orthodox painters, coached and encouraged, even to the point of passing off his paintings as Song or Yuan originals, by Wang Shimin and Wang Jian.

At court in the s he was in charge of producing the series of massive handscrolls describing the Kangxi emperor's Tours of the South. The British Museum has only a small fan painting of his, but the anonymous handscroll, Snow Landscape , bearing the signature of Fan Kuan, is perhaps close to Wang Hui's oeuvre.

Wu Li Born in Jiangsu province. Friend and contemporary of Wang Hui and one of the leading Orthodox painters of the early Qing. Together with Wang Hui he was instructed by Wang Jian and Wang Shimin and through them became acquainted with and influenced by the landscapes of the Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty, particularly Wang Meng. His orthodoxy was shown in his admiration for the ancient masters, yet he believed in manipulating the styles of the Song and Yuan masters to create an intensely personal style.

Wu's paintings were much admired by his contemporaries. He eventually became a Jesuit priest in after which time he apparently painted relatively little. Deferring to Wang Hui in landscape, he is known chiefly for his paintings of flowers in the 'boneless' technique.

The fall of the Ming dynasty left him a wanderer, and he is known as one of the Four Monk painters with Hongren, Kuncan and Bada Shanren. His Huayulu is one of the most important of Chinese writings on painting, which he discusses from his concept of 'the single brushstroke'.

In the same work, he strenuously defends his own originality: 'the beards and eyebrows of the ancients do not grow on my face'. His handscroll painting in the Suzhou Museum, Ten Thousand Ugly Ink Dots , bears an inscription in which he declares his purpose to shock the past masters such as Mi Fu.

Many of his paintings, such as Eight Views of the South , Brirish Museum, are closely linked with his own wanderings in early life; they are frequently complemented with his calligraphy in different styles to match the brushwork of the paintings. Wang Yuanqi Born Jiangsu province.

Grandson of Wang Shimin. Landscape painter, youngest and arguably the most original of the Four Wangs. Perhaps his greatest work is the large coloured recreation of the handscroll, Wang Chuan Villa , in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, a long-lost masterpiece of the Tang poet and painter Wang Wei, then, as now, known only from a rubbing and late copies. Shangguan Zhou Born Changting, Fujian province. Primarily a painter of somewhat rustic figures and landscapes, exemplified by the handscroll in the British Museum, The Fisherman's Paradise.

Huang Shen was his pupil. Leng Mei c. Professional court painter, specialising in figure painting. Hua Yan From Fujian province. Poet and calligrapher as well as painter, noted for his lively and meticulous renderings of birds, but also skilled at figures and landscapes. Gao Fenghan Born Jiaoxian, Shandong province. Known early on in life for his poetry.

He had an official career but never rose very high in rank. His right arm became paralysed in and thereafter he painted with his left hand.

The British Museum has a fine set of fan paintings of landscapes and flowers, all painted before this event and an album of Flower Paintings after Designs from the Ten Bamboo Studio. Zou Yigui Court painter under the Qianlong emperor ruled who commissioned him to paint a pictorial colophon, Pine and Juniper Trees , British Museum at the end of the Gu Kaizhi handscroll, The Admonitions of the Court Instructress , regarded as the most valuable painting in the whole of the Palace collection, being installed by the emperor with just three others in a separate pavilion in the Forbidden City.

Though now separately mounted, it came to the British Museum with Gu's painting, and also bears the Qianlong emperor's seals. Huang Shen Born Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Pupil of Shangguan Zhou, and one of the Yangzhou Eccentrics. He painted figures and landscapes with lengthy inscriptions in a distinctive Best Painting Landscape Books Model cursive hand. Castiglione became a Jesuit priest in He arrived in Macao in and then went to Beijing where he remained until his death.

There he became part of the group of Western advisers at the Chinese imperial court. He painted for three emperors, Kangxi, Yong-zheng and Qianlong, and also trained Chinese artists in Western techniques. Of all the missionary arrists who worked for the Qing emperors, Castiglione was pre-eminent. His paintings combined traditional Chinese watercolour techniques with the Western use of linear perspective and chiaroscuro. He excelled in religious painting, portraiture and the painting of animals, flowers and landscapes.

Yuan Jiang c. Specialised, like Yuan Yao and Li Yin, in large landscapes, often with prominent architectural features, and composed in a grand manner reminiscent of the monumental landscape style of the Five Dynasties and Song.




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